Thursday, January 12, 2012

CHITWAN



Asia’s most well-preserved conservation area is the Chitwan National Park, where wildlife thrives and habitats remain intact. Only a half-hour flight away from Kathmandu, the park lies in the 'Tarai' region (plains) and is home to a range of wildlife including endangered species like the Greater One-horned rhinoceros and the elusive Royal Bengal tiger. Enlisted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the park has a particularly rich flora and fauna boasting more than 450 species of birds. Resorts within the park facilitate safaris on elephant back, boat ride or jeep drives.

Jaunty rides on elephant back, crossing rivers on dug-out canoes and catching unsuspecting wildlife in their natural habitat; these are thrills one is not likely to forget even years after the mystical holiday in Nepal. Chitwan owes its fame to Chitwan National Park, the most well-preserved conservation area in all of Asia. The park is home to a large variety of wildlife including the endangered Greater One-horned rhinoceros and the elusive Royal Bengal tiger. Chitwan, only a 30 minute flight away in southern Nepal, has a sub-tropical climate. Resorts both inside and outside the national park cater to the needs of tourists who come down for safari adventure in the jungles. Chitwan is easy to reach both by road and by air. The nearest airports are in Meghauli and Bharatpur and flights leave for these airports on a regular basis. 

Chitwan National Park is the favorite destination of tourists looking for an enduring safari experience. Once this large tract of land was declared a national park, illegal settlements were halted and deforestation brought under control within its boundaries. At the same time poaching was controlled to some extent. The natural habitat of wildlife was preserved and they flourished. Major Projects were initiated to save the tiger and rhinoceros with the help of friendly nations and foreign institutions. As a result rhinos are quite commonly seen in Chitwan and occasionally the Bengal tiger can be spied well camouflaged among the tall grass. The Rapti River has been dammed to create a man-made lake called Lamital where waterfowl and many other exotic birds are found in abundance. Elephant grass that are five to six feet tall, provide excellent cover for animals. 

Accomodation: 
There are resorts and lodges of varying standards that cater to the needs of tourists both inside and outside the national park. Most include elephant safaris, jungle walks, canoeing and a variety of cultural activities in their programs. Reservations can be made at the Kathmandu offices of the various resorts and lodges. Accommodations range from the luxurious to some that offer simple food and shelter. The rich culture of the indigenous Tharu people of Chitwan can be observed first hand during village walks. Tharu cultural dance are performances to the delight of tourists who sometimes join in. There’s never a dull moment in Chitwan with a choice of activities to fill your day, whether you stay two days or a week.

Wildlife and Breeding centers
Besides the rhinos and tigers there are sloth bears, wild boar, gaur (bison), 4 species of deer, 2 species of monkeys, 2 species of crocodiles, leopard, wild cats; a large variety of reptiles and over 500 species of birds. Apart from jungle safari, there are many places of interest within the park such as the Elephant Breeding Centre and Crocodile Farm where these animals have been successfully breeding in captivity. 

LUMBINI


Lumbini is the birthplace of Lord Buddha and a World Heritage Site. This pilgrimage site in southwest Nepal attracts devout Buddhists from around the world, who arrive to pay homage at the Sacred Garden where the ‘Enlightened One’ was born. A famous landmark is the Ashoka Pillar raised by the great Emperor who converted to Buddhism. Today Lumbini has been enlivened by the multitude of architecturally beautiful temples, stupas and monasteries built by various international Buddhist communities.  

Lumbini is hallowed ground as Shakyamuni Buddha was born here in southern Nepal more than twenty-five hundred years ago. As a sacred birthplace, it is an important pilgrimage site for Buddhists from around the globe. Many excavations have taken place here around this small town in the southern Terai plains of Nepal. Ruins of the old city are clearly visible and many artifacts were unearthed during the excavation. Shakyamuni Buddha was born a prince to the ruler of the little principality. Important landmarks are the Maya Devi temple and the Ashoka pillar. The remains of many ancient stupas and monasteries can be found in the surroundings of Lumbini The Ashoka pillar is said to have been erected by the Indian Emperor Ashoka in 250 BC and bears an inscription confirming this as the birth place of the Buddha. A stone image of Maya Devi giving birth to Lord Buddha as she holds onto a branch is seen in the Maya Devi temple. The belief that touching it will render a woman fertile has led to erosion as thousands of hands have stroked it.
South of the temple is the sacred pool where Maya Devi is said to have given her son his first purification bath. Shaded by the leafy Bo tree (the type of tree under which Buddha received enlightenment), it is a quiet garden and a newly planted forest nearby brings an atmosphere of tranquility to it. A Master Plan of the Lumbini Development Trust was drawn up decades ago and development is finally under way. The plan, completed in 1978 by the renowned Japanese architect Kenzo Tange, will transform three square miles of land into a sacred place of gardens, pools, buildings, and groves. The development will include a Monastic Zone, the circular sacred Garden surrounding the Ashoka pillar and Maya Devi temple, and Lumbini Village, comprising lodges, restaurants, a cultural center and tourist facilities. Over the years, many stupas and monasteries have been built representing Buddhist communities of numerous countries from around the world. In Kapilvastu near Lumbini, is an excavation site that evokes the ancient palace where Lord Buddha spent his formative years. The ruins include scattered foundations of the palace and thirteen successive layers of human habitation dating back to the 8th Century BC; a must see for students of archeology and history. 


Access: Nepal Airlines along with other airlines fly regularly to Bhairahawa airport near Lumbini, and there are regular bus services from Pokhara and Kathmandu. Accommodation: There are several good hotels and lodges in Lumbini, but accommodation is also available in monasteries of the various countries.


Places to see
Maya Devi temple, Ashoka pillar, Pushkarni pond 
Maya Devi temple is one of the important sites as the place of birth of Lord Buddha. Inscriptions on the Ashoka pillar confirm the spot as the birthplace. Of special interest are several ruins of ancient stupas and monasteries. Recent excavations have unearthed a stone bearing a "footprint" indicating the exact location of the Buddha’s birth. Pushkarni pond is of special significance as Queen Maya Devi is said to have taken a bath here before giving birth. The International Gautami Nuns temple found here is a replica of the Swoyambhunath stupa in Kathmandu. 

Lumbini Museum 
Other places of interest are the Lumbini Museum, Lumbini International Research Institute, and Kapilvastu Museum situated 27 km west of Lumbini in Tilaurakot. In the Kapilvastu museum can be seen ruins of the ancient capital of the Sakya kingdom where the Buddha grew up as Prince Siddhartha. 

The Sacred Garden is best visited in the morning. Spread over 8 sq. km., it possesses treasures from the past. Today as part of the global initiative to promote Lumbini, many Buddhist communities from various countries have built or are building temples, monasteries or stupas near the Sacred Garden in the International Monastery Zone. Monasteries built by these communities showcase the architecture and culture of their respective nations and are part of the attraction of Lumbini today. The Monastery of Royal Thai (Thailand), Chinese Monastery (China), Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu (Vietnam), Mahabodhi Society of Kolkotta (India), International Nun's Society (Nepal), The Great Lotus Stupa (Tara Foundation, Germany), Myanmar Monastery (Myanmar), Manang Sewa Samaj (Nepal), Linhson Monastery (France), Sokyao Temple (Japan), Geden International (Austria), Sri Lankan Monastery (Sri-Lanka), Korean Mahabodhi Society (South Korea), Dharmodhaya Sabha (Nepal), Drigung Kagyud Meditation Center (India), Cambodian Monastery (Cambodia) Panditarama Meditation Center (Myanmar), Vipasana Mediation Center (Nepal), Lumbini Museum, Lumbini International Research Institute, World Peace Pagoda, Eternal Peace Flame, Peace Bell and Crane Sanctuary add beauty and serenity to Lumbini.

About 31 kilometers west of Lumbini is Gotihawa in the Kapilvastu district. It is considered a very important religious site for Buddhists from around the world. It is revered as the spot where the Krakuchanda Buddha, who came before Sakyamuni Buddha, was born and attained nirvana. 

Another spot if significance is Kudan where King Suddhodhana met Lord Buddha. It is about 4 ½ km south of Tilaurakot. 
Niglihawa is situated about 32 kilometers northwest of Lumbini. Emperor Ashoka visited Niglisagar during his pilgrimage, built a stupa and set up a pillar. It is believed that the Kanakmuni Buddha, who came earlier than Shakyamuni Buddha, was born, enlightened, and met his father in this place. 

Getting there
Take a 45-minute flight from TIA in Kathmandu to Gautam Buddha Airport in Bhairahawa or catch a bus that leaves from the Gongabu Bus Park. Bhairahawa can also be reached by bus from other parts of the country. Buses to Lumbiini leave every hour or so from 6 am to 5 pm from Bhairahawa.

POKHARA VALLEY



Pokhara valley, the ‘Jewel of the mid-west’ is a favorite of tourists from around the globe. With the magnificent Annapurna range of mountains as a backdrop and the serenity of the three lakes of Phewa, Rupa and Begnas, Pokhara is the ultimate destination for relaxation. Yet the valley has grown in recent years as the destination for adventures sports such as paragliding and ultra-light flights. With boating, bird watching, trekking and mountain biking as the other attractions, Pokhara has it all.

Pokhara sits high on the list of ‘must visit’ places in Nepal. Tourists on extended holidays in Nepal make multiple visits to this famous valley of the three lakes. The tourist district of Pokhara better known as ‘Lakeside Pokhara’ is quite distinctly separate from Pokhara city. Lakeside sprawls beside Phewa Lake and is reminiscent of Thamel except for the ample space and miniscule traffic which makes Pokhara so much more enjoyable and relaxed than its counterpart in Kathmandu. The enchanting Pokhara valley with the dominating presence of Mt. Machhapuchhare (Fishtail Mountain) in the background is the gateway to the Annapurna region where many a trekker finds his Shangri-la. Pokhara is also ideally placed for adventure sports such as: rafting, paragliding and ultra-light flights. The relaxed atmosphere on the shores of Phewa Lake gives a trekker a much needed respite from days of hiking up and down the hills and mountains on one of the popular Annapurna treks. The crowded bars and restaurants are the places to seek companionship, where tall stories and real life experiences are shared with perfect strangers. The friendly Nepalese make a tourist feel at home to the point where many stay on for extended periods and come each year to seek those friends he’s made and find peace of mind.  


Pokhara’s bewitching beauty has been the subject of many travel writers. Its pristine air, the spectacular backdrop of the snowy peaks, the serene lakes and the surrounding greenery make it ‘the jewel in the Himalaya’, a place of remarkable natural beauty. Mt. Machhapuchhare (6,977 m) has a mesmerizing effect on any nature lover and the Phewa Lake creates an ambience of peace that is magical. Warmer than Kathmandu because of it lower altitude, Pokhara is pleasant in the winter and has a rich flora and fauna making it ideal for bird watching. 


Pokhara once lay on the important trade route between India and Tibet. To this day, mule trains arrive and set up camp on the outskirts of the town, bringing goods from remote regions of the Himalaya including Mustang. The people of this region are predominantly Magars and Gurungs, hardworking farmers who are known for their valor and have earned world-wide fame as fierce Gurkha warrior soldiers. The other well-known ethnic group found here are the Thakalis. Known for their entrepreneurship, they run many tea houses along the trek routes in the Annapurna region. 



Places to see
Mountain Views 

Pokhara is blessed with stunning panoramic views of the Annapurna range which forms its backdrop. Although not the highest in the range, Machhapuchhare dominates because of its proximity to the valley and can be seen from anywhere in Pokhara. Stretching from east to west, the Annapurna massif includes Annapurna 1 to IV and Annapurna South. Further away are seen the giants, Dhaulagiri (8,167m) and Manaslu (8,163m). 

Phewa Lake 

Pokhara owes its popularity to enchanting Phewa Lake and along its eastern shore has grown the Lakeside town where tourists gather. It is the largest and most beautiful of the three lakes attracting a large number of visitors who enjoy boating on its placid waters. Boat can be hired and many visit the island temple that lies out in the middle of the lake. The other past time is sailing. Lakeside or Baidam, is a thriving resort town of hotels, restaurants, bars and souvenir shops that allows travelers to relax and yet have all they need.

Barahi Temple (Show in Map)

Located in the middle of Phewa Lake, the Barahi temple is the most important monument in Pokhara. The two storied pagoda is dedicated to the boar manifestation of' Ajima who represents the female force Shakti. Sacrifices take place here and the largest crowds of devotees are seen on Saturdays, the official holiday in Nepal

Seti Gandaki (Show in Map)
An amazing aspect of Pokhara is the vanishing river. A natural wonder, the Seti Gandaki goes underground, vanishing from sight in many places along its route through the city. At various points the river is barely two meters wide where its depth reaches an astonishing 20 meters! A good spot for watching the river below is Mahendra Pul, a small bridge near the old Mission Hospital. Here the river can be seen in all its ferocity gushing down the deep gorge that it has carved over millennia. 
David's Fall
Locally known as the Patale Chhango (Nether Fall), David's Fall (known variously as Devin's and Devi’'s Fall) is a charming little waterfall located about 2 km south-west of the Pokhara airport on the Siddhartha Highway. Many years ago a trekker named David or Devin is said to have been washed away by the river Pardi Khola and disappeared in an underground passage beneath the fall.

Mahendra Cave
A major attraction of Pokhara is the Mahendra Gupha, a limestone cave reached after a two-hour walk north of Pokhara. Known as the ‘House of Bats’ owing to a number of bats living within its walls, the cave is an interesting labyrinth of stalactites and stalagmites. Visitors will be well-advised to bring their own torches to closely inspect the formations. There is another deep cave called Bat's Cave known as the ‘House of Bats’ owing to a number of bats living within its walls.
World Peace Pagoda
World Peace Pagoda can be seen on the top of a hill on the southern shore of Phewa Lake. It has four images of Buddha facing in four directions. The dome shaped pagoda is an impressive sight and its hilltop location commands a great view. It is a great vantage point which offers spectacular views of the Annapurna.

The Old Bazaar
A stark contrast to Lakeside Pokhara, the old Pokhara Bazaar is 4 km away from Phewa Lake. It is a traditional bazaar and a colorful gathering place for an ethnically diverse group of traders. The temples and monuments bear a close resemblance to the Newari architecture of Kathmandu Valley. Except for the large concrete buildings that have cropped up, the market place retains much of its original charm. It makes for a pleasant walk; there are shops selling anything from edibles and clothing to cosmetics and gold.  The old bazaar is also home to one of Pokhara's most important shrines', the Brindhyabasini Mandir. Perched on a shady hillock, this white dome-like structure dominates a spacious stone-paved courtyard. 


Museums
The Pokhara Museum is worth a visit. Located between the bus stop and Mahendra Pul, it showcases the ethnic mosaic of the diverse cultures that thrive in western Nepal. The lifestyles and history of the Gurungs, Thakalis and Tharus are attractively represented by models, photographs and artifacts. Of much interest and also a major attraction is the recently discovered remains of an 8000-year-old settlement in Mustang. Open daily from 10 am to 5 pm, except on Tuesdays and public holidays. 

Another interesting museum in Pokhara is the Annapurna Regional Museum which is also known as the Natural History Museum. Run by the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), the museum has an exceptional collection of butterflies, insects, birds and models of wildlife found in the area. Located at Prithvi Narayan Campus, east of the old bazaar, it is open daily from 9 am to 5 pm except on Saturdays and public holidays. 
International Mountain Museum

The International Mountain Museum (IMM) has an impressive façade. It was built with the objective of recording, documenting, exhibiting and chronicling the entire past up to the present day, the development of mountain and mountaineering activities in the world. It has received much support from the many mountaineering clubs and associations as well as individual donors from around the world. The museum was established by Nepal Mountaineering Association (NMA) with the theme ‘Man, Mountain and Mountain activities around the world’. Accordingly, the entire display area of the museum has been divided along the theme. The exhibition Halls are:


Hall of Mountain People: This hall exhibits the customs, traditions, heritage, culture and way of life of the mountain people. 

Hall of World Mountains: This hall showcases all fourteen peaks over 8000 m. and displays geological facts related to the origin of world mountain systems. The hall also exhibits and explains the flora and fauna of the Himalaya. Another aspect of the museum is the focus on great personalities like Kumar Khadga Bikrum Shah (founder president of NMA), Dr. Toni Hagen (Renowned geologist and lover of Nepal, who published the first pictorial "Nepal"), Reverend Ekai Kawaguchi (The first Japanese to visit Nepal in 1899), and Dr. Harka Gurung (Renowned scholar, geographer, development planner and first Tourism Minister of Nepal). 

Hall of Mountain Activities: Highlighting historical ascents and explorations in and around the mountainous regions, this hall is dedicated to mountain activities such as mountaineering and trekking. Interestingly, it also showcases the development of climbing gears and other essential mountaineering equipment.


Surrounding Areas
Pokhara is where some of the most popular treks in the Annapurna region begin and end.  Among them, the highly recommended treks are the intensive Annapurna Circuit and Jomsom Treks. For those with limited time on their hands, there are a number of short treks that are equally fascinating like the Sarankot, Naudanda, Ghandruk or Ghorepani treks. The Sarankot (1,592m) trek is popular for its bird’s eye view of Pokhara and the spectacular panoramic view of mountains. It lies west of Pokhara and the hilltop was once the location of a Kaski Fort.

BHAKTAPUR CITY


Perched on a hill at an altitude of 1,401m, Bhaktapur or Bhadgaon, literally the City of Devotees, is a major tourist attraction taking visitors back in time. Covering an area of 4 sq. miles, this city retains the charming paved roads, red brick houses and a way of life that goes back to medieval times. The extraordinary ‘Durbar Square’ with its celebrated Golden Gate and extraordinary Palace of Fifty-Five windows reflects the glory days of the Malla Dynasty when art and architecture thrived in the three cities of the valley. Situated 14km east of Kathmandu, this ancient city is also famous for pottery and woodcarving amply displayed on the squares and windows respectively.


Siddha Pokhari: For a small city, Bhaktapur has the largest number of public water tanks built within the city limits. Siddha Pokhu (Pokhari) is one of the largest tanks meant to supply drinking water to the people of Bhaktapur. Built in the 15th Century by King Yakshya Malla, this large rectangular tank is teeming with fish and is occasionally open to the public for fishing and boating.   

Nyatapola: The unique temple of Bhaktapur, the Nyatapola literally means ‘Five storied’ and rises above the city as a remarkable landmark. It also has the distinction of having withstood the devastating earthquake of 1933. Dedicated to a tantric goddess, the steps leading up to the temple, is flanked by stone sculptures. At the base are two statues of Malla era wrestlers representing humans and in ascending order of power and strength, there are creatures each ten times more powerful than the preceding statue.

Batsala Temple: One of temples built out of stone is the Batsala Devi of Bhaktapur which has many intricate carvings. Beside it is the famous bronze bell, locally known as 'the bell of barking dogs' as its ringing was invariably accompanied by the howling of dogs in the vicinity. This large bell was put up by King Ranjit Malla in A. D. 1737 and its sounding announced the beginning and end of a daily curfew. Today, it is rung every morning when the priests worship Goddess Taleju.  

Bhairavnath Temple: Dedicated to Kasi Bhairav, the three storied temple of Bhairavnath has only the head of Bhairav in the inner sanctum. Legend has it that Kasi Bhairav’s head was cut off by a tantric expert in order to keep him in Bhaktapur. Built in the pagoda style, it stands adjacent to the more famous five storied Nyatapola temple. Bhairav is the dangerous aspect of Shiva. Originally built by King Jagat Jyoti Malla, the temple was improved by King Bhupatindra Malla, a zealous lover of the arts. 

Thimi: 10 km east of Kathmandu close to Bhaktapur, is the potter’s town of Thimi. Besides farming, most households here are engaged in pottery. This laid back town not only supplies Kathmandu its pottery but also its vegetables. The most important deity here is Goddess Balkumari. The charming medieval lifestyle of these farmers is a major tourist attraction.

PATAN CITY


Patan also known as ‘Lalitpur’ literally, the City of Artisans, lies 5km southeast of Kathmandu, and is home to the valley’s finest craftsmen who preserve ancient techniques such as repoussé  and the lost wax process, still producing exquisite pieces of sculpture. The city retains much of the old charm with its narrow streets, brick houses and the multitude of well-preserved Hindu temples and Buddhist monasteries (Vihars). The predominant sound in Patan is not motor vehicles but the tinkering of craftsmen bent over the statuettes they are shaping. As in Kathmandu, Hinduism and Buddhism have co-existed here for ages, influencing each other and the religious harmony is exemplary.

Around Patan
Hiranya Varna Mahabihar: Dating back to the 12th Century A.D. the three storied golden pagoda of Lokeshwar in Patan was built by King Bhaskar Varma. Located in the courtyard of Kwabahal, this temple is in a class of its own. On the upper floor is a golden image of Lord Buddha and a large prayer wheel on a pedestal. Intricate decorative patterns on its outer walls add charm to the mellow richness of the shrine.  


Kumbheshwar: 
The temple of Kumbheswar is the only five storied pagoda in Patan and is dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is believed that a natural spring within the courtyard of this temple has its source in the very popular glacial lake of Gosainkunda. Built by King Jayasthiti Malla, the golden finial was added later in 1422 A.D. During his time the pond was cleaned and various images of Narayan, Ganesh, Sitala, Basuki, Gauri, Kirtimukh and Agamadevata were added around the pond and in the courtyard. A large gathering of devotees arrive here for ritual bathing on the day of Janai Poornima each year.  

Jagat Narayan: The Jagat Narayan temple on the banks of the Bagmati River at Sankhamul is a tall shikhara-style temple consecrated to Lord Vishnu. Built of red bricks, the temple has many fine images. An attractive metal statue of Garuda mounted on a stone monolith is accompanied by several images of Ganesh and Hanuman. 

Mahaboudha: The famous temple of Mahabouddha in Patan is unique for its thousand little images of Buddha in terracotta. This artistically built shikhara-style temple is a fine specimen and owes its existence to a priest named Abhaya Raj. Every brick on the surface of this shrine bears a small image of the Buddha. After it was completely destroyed during the great earthquake of 1933, a new one was built replicating the original to the exact specifications. Mahaboudha is one of the major attractions of Patan.
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Ashoka Stupas: Although there is little evidence that the Emperor Ashoka ever visited Kathmandu valley, there are four stupas supposedly built by him in 250 AD. Marking the four corners of Patan, three of these stupas are merely mounds of earth with prayer wheels around them while the fourth near Shankamul is a beautiful concrete stupa. At the time they were built, Buddhism flourished in the Kathmandu Valley. 

Machhendranath Temple: The temple of Red Machchhendranath, the God of Rain is of great importance in Patan. The temple lies in the middle of a wide, spacious quadrangle just at the outer rim of the market place. A clay image of Red Machchhendranath or Avalokiteshwar is kept here for six months each year, after which it is placed on a chariot and taken round the city of Patan in a boisterous colorful procession as part of a festival that begins in April-May and lasts for several months.  

The Tibetan Refugee Camp: A large number of Tibetans fled their homeland in Tibet and settled in Nepal during the early 1960s. To shelter these homeless people the government of Nepal set up the Tibetan Refugee Camp on the outskirts of Patan. The Tibetans brought their carpet weaving skills to Nepal and soon a carpet industry was thriving in the valley. The camp has become a tourist attraction with its souvenir shops that sell carpets and handicrafts such as prayer wheels made of wood, ivory, silver or bronze along with an assortment of belt buckles, wooden bowls and jewelry. A stupa and a number of shrines have also been built within the camp.

NEPAL'S HISTORY


The recorded history of Nepal is centered on the Kathmandu valley and begins with the Kirantis who are said to have ruled for many centuries beginning from the 7th or 8th Century B.C. with their famous King Yalumber who is even mentioned in the epic, ‘Mahabharata’. The Gopalas who were herdsmen are believed to have ruled before the Kirantis but little is known about them. Their descendants are said to still live at the edge of the valley. Around 300 A.D. the Lichavis arrived from northern India and overthrew the Kirantis. The descendants of the Kirantis are the Rais and Limbus who predominate in eastern Nepal. One of the legacies of the Lichavis is the fabulous Changu Narayan Temple near Bhaktapur which dates back to the 5th Century. In early 7th Century, Amshuvarman, the first Thakuri king took over the throne from his father-in-law who was a Lichavi. He married off his daughter Bhrikuti to the famous Tibetan King Tsong Tsen Gampo thus establishing good relations with Tibet. Bhrikuti went on to convert the king to Buddhism. The Lichavis brought art and architecture to the valley but the golden age of creativity arrived with the Mallas who came to power around 1200 A.D.

During their 550 year rule, the Mallas built an amazing number of temples and splendid palaces with picturesque squares that are lined with architecturally beautiful temples. It was also during their rule that society and the cities became well organized, religious festivals were introduced and literature, music and art were encouraged. Sadly after the death of Yaksha Malla, the valley was divided into three kingdoms: Kathmandu (Kantipur), Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon) and Patan (Lalitpur). The rivalry among these kingdoms led to the building of grand palaces and the uplifting of the arts and culture. Around this time, the Nepal as we know it today was divided into about 46 independent principalities. One among these was the kingdom of Gorkha with a Shah king in power. Much of Kathmandu valley’s history around this time was recorded by Capuchin friars who lived here on their way in and out of Tibet.

Nepal, as a state, was established when an ambitious Gorkha king named Prithvi Narayan Shah embarked on a conquering mission that led to the defeat of all the kingdoms in the valley (including Kirtipur which was an independent state) by 1769. Instead of annexing the newly acquired states to his kingdom of Gorkha, Prithvi Narayan decided to move his capital to Kathmandu establishing the Shah dynasty which ruled unified Nepal from 1769 to 2008 when the last Shah ruler, Gyanendra relinquished his power to make way for total democracy under the rule of a Prime Minister. 

The history of the Gorkha state goes back to 1559 when Dravya Shah established a kingdom in an area chiefly inhabited by Magars. At this time the Kathmandu valley was ruled by the Malla kings. During the 17th and early 18th centuries, Gorkha continued a slow expansion, conquering various states while forging alliances with others. Prithvi Narayan dedicated himself at an early age to the conquest of the Kathmandu valley. Recognizing the threat of the British Raj in India, he dismissed European missionaries from the country and for more than a century, Nepal remained in isolation. 

During the mid-19th century Jung Bahadur Rana became Nepal's first prime minister to wield absolute power relegating the Shah king to a mere figurehead. He started a hereditary reign of the Ranas that lasted for 104 years during which time the Shah kings had no real power. The Ranas were overthrown in a democracy movement of the early 1950s with support from an unlikely person, the monarch of Nepal, King Tribhuvan. Soon after the overthrow of the Ranas, King Tribhuvan was reinstated as the head of the state. In early 1959, Tribhuvan's son King Mahendra issued a new constitution, and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress Party was victorious and their leader, Bisheshwar Prasad Koirala formed a government and served as prime minister. But by 1960, King Mahendra had changed his mind and dissolved Parliament, dismissing the first democratic government. 

After many years of struggle when the political parties were banned, they finally mustered enough courage to start a people's movement in 1990. With the public rising up against absolute monarchy and demanding democracy, the then ruler King Birendra accepted constitutional reforms and established a multiparty parliament with himself as head of state and the prime minister heading the government. In May 1991, Nepal held its first parliamentary elections. In February 1996, one of the Communist parties (Maoist wing) went underground to wage a people's war against monarchy and the elected government.  

Then on June 1, 2001, a horrific tragedy wiped out the entire royal family along with many of their close relatives. With only King Birendra’s brother, Gyanendra and his family surviving, he was crowned the king. King Gyanendra tolerated the elected government for only a short while and then dismissed Parliament to grab absolute power. In April 2006, strikes and street protests in Kathmandu led to a 19-day curfew and the political parties joined forces with the Maoist rebels to bring pressure on the monarch. Eventually, King Gyanendra realized it was futile holding on to power and relented. He agreed to reinstate parliament. But the political parties and a majority of the general public had had enough of dynastic rule and their abuse of power.  On May 28, 2008, a newly elected Constituent Assembly declared Nepal a Federal Democratic Republic, abolishing the 240 year-old monarchy. Nepal today has a President as Head of State and a Prime Minister heading the Nepal Government.

BIODIVERSITY


Nepal’s biodiversity is a reflection of its unique geographic position and variations in altitude and climate. The protected areas add up to 28,585.67 sq km (19.42% of total land cover) of land. There are nine national parks, three wildlife reserves, three conservation areas, one hunting reserve and nine buffer zones. Share of Bio-resources is: Amphibians: 1.0%; birds: 9.3%; reptiles: 1.6%; mammals: 4.5%

ANIMALS

Mammals
Nepal has 185 different mammals found in various parts of the country. The Asiatic Elephant was once found in great numbers in the Bardia National Park in western Nepal, but are now fewer. This park falls on a traditional elephant migratory route from the western Tarai to Corbett National Park in India. The Greater one-horned Rhinoceros can be found in the parks along the Tarai. There are very few wild buffalo left near the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in the eastern Tarai, but recent reports say their numbers are growing.  The Royal Bengal tiger is an elusive animal found in the national parks. The Gangetic dolphins are found in the Narayani and Karnali rivers along with the Royal Bengal and one horned rhino are endangered species. Rarely seen is the leopard and bear. High in the Himalaya are found the even more elusive snow leopard. Other mammals that live in high altitudes are the Yak, blue sheep, tahr and musk deer.  The jungles of the southern tarai have sloth bear, monkeys, langur, chital or spotted deer, barking deer and many other species. In the Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve in the south west corner of Nepal there are herds of swamp deer, while the endangered blackbucks are found in the Bardia region. The Nepal Government has made an effort to preserve the blackbuck by declaring an area of 15.95 sq.km. in Bardia as Blackbuck Conservation Area where they are now thriving. Nepal has an amazing variety of mammals such as hyenas, jackals, wild boar, antelope, wild cats, Red panda, otters, wolves and others. Most animals are found in the Chitwan National Park while the Red Panda is encountered in the Langtang National Park and Kanchenjunga Conservation Area. Otters are found in the Rara lake in the Rara National Park. In the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve are found the blue sheep and tahr.
Reptiles
Nepal has two indigenous species of crocodile: the fish eating gharial with the long narrow snout and the marsh mugger which is omnivorous, eating anything it can catch. A very successful breeding project has brought the gharial back from extinction. Some of the snakes found in Nepal are: cobras, kraits, vipers and the Indian Python. Other reptiles found in the country are turtles and monitor lizards. Some of these reptiles can be seen in the Chitwan National Park and Bardia National Park. 

Birds
Nepal has 874 recorded species of birds. Amazingly, half of these birds can be seen in Kathmandu valley alone. However, a keen bird watcher can travel the length and breadth of Nepal doing little else but bird watching. In Nepal, bird watching is possible from the tarai in the south, in the middle hills right up to the Himalayas in the north. 
There are four major areas that are rich in bird life within the Kathmandu valley, and one can begin right from the banks of the Bagmati River that flows through this city or the Manohara River that flows down Bhaktapur. Birds sighted along these rivers are: egrets, herons, kingfishers, ibisbill, Wood sandpipers and plovers etc. The Chobar gorge is also a good area for birds as its isolation from human habitation encourages their presence. Phulchowki is a popular site, with a Red-headed Trogan, a very rare bird sighted there in April 2000. Phulchowki is 2,760 m in height and 18km south-east of Kathmandu, and can be reached via Godavari. The hillside is covered with forest featuring outstanding flora as well as a rich variety of birds. About 90 species have been recorded in this area including the endemic Spiny Babbler, which was thought to be extinct until it was spotted in Nepal. Other birds found are: Cutia, Mountain Hawk Eagle, Rufous Bellied pied woodpeckers and the Black-throated parrotbill, to name a few. Migratory water fowl also arrive in the winter, staying in the Tauda lake until spring. 

Other birding sites in the valley are the Shivapuri National Park, 12km north of the city, and Nagarjun in the north-west. Shivapuri can be reached two ways, either from Sundarijal or Budhanilkantha. Koshi Barrage together with Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in the eastern Tarai is one of the best habitats for water fowl and waders and harbors an amazing variety of birds. The Koshi has about 26 varieties of ducks alone. Birds can be viewed during walks or by boat, gliding through the waters in the stillness of the early morning and evenings. 485 species have been sighted here, including Black ibis, Honey kites, ospreys, Black headed orioles, Peregrine falcon, partridges, ruddy shelduck, storks, vultures, eagles, etc. 

Chitwan is in the lowlands of Nepal, known as the Tarai. Chitwan National Park is one of the best known sites in Nepal for bird-watching. In Pokhara, the forests around the banks of Phewa Lake and Begnas Lake are ideal for bird watching, particularly in the less inhabited areas. In winter, around Phewa Lake you find egrets, herons, pipits, buntings plus gulls, terns, ducks and falcons. Begnas Lake has slopes and wet fields surrounding it, where ducks, pheasant-tailed Jacana, Happie Grey Bellied tesias, and bulbuls are seen. 

Bardia National Park is covered with Sal forest and riverine forest and grassland much like Chitwan, but this park has the mighty Karnali river flowing through the park. Boating on the Karnali is a great way to watch herons, cormorants, orials, and many more. The higher regions of Nepal along trek routes are good for birdwatching too.  A rare bird known as Jerdon's Baza was sighted in Nepal. 

Over the past few years a conservation group has worked specifically in the Lumbini area to conserve the Sarus Crane. Wetlands have been constructed in the Lumbini area to provide refuge for Sarus Cranes and other wetland birds. In Chitwan, endangered vultures are being protected from contaminated food by establishing what is known as the Vulture Restaurant which feeds them safe carcasses. Nepal’s national bird is the Impeyan Pheasant known as Daphe in Nepali.

Butterflies
Butterflies have been studied in Nepal for over 150 years, with much of the original study and collection done by the British, including one or two British Residents (i.e. British Consuls of the day). After 1950 the Japanese became involved in collection through scientific expeditions, and this resulted later in the establishment by Tribhuvan University of the Natural History Museum at Swayambhu in 1974. Butterfly

The record books state that Nepal has 11 out of the 15 families of butterflies in the world, or over 500 species, and still today in the 21st century new species keep turning up. It is said that you never really know with Nepal's butterflies; they just may turn up unexpectedly . From 1974 to 1981, only a period of seven years, a further 24 specimens or sub-families were added to the records, and in 1981 two alone, the BLUE DUCHESS and the SIKKIM HAIRSTREAK were discovered, with this last one known only from a single specimen from Sikkim, with this one female found in 1981 in Godavari, Kathmandu Valley ; and later in 1986 an entirely new race of the CHINESE HAIRSTREAK turned up. The original collectors were not allowed outside the Kathmandu Valley, so much of their research documented only the valley. Only after 1950 when Nepal opened up to expeditions and limited tourism, did the butterfly collectors venture outside the valley.

Nepal is divided into 5 regions based on altitude, and the seasons are specified as Spring, Pre-monsoon, Summer-monsoon, Post-monsoon, Autumn and Winter. In winter below 3,000 metres.

Within the Kathmandu Valley, the climate which is quite mild with day temperatures reaching 18ºC in mid-winter, there are butterflies all the year round. The best seasons for butterfly watching are late March/April, mid May/ mid June, late August/September. There are forested areas in the valley which are still remarkable places for butterflies, and they include open country near Chobar and there is very little activity except for the very common Oriental Species, with the distribution of butterflies in Nepal being quite specific with about 10% of the butterflies being Palaearctic species above 3,000 metres, and about 90% Oriental species Swyambhu; the base of the hills and forest streams at Godavari, Nagarjun, Budhanilkantha and Sundarijal; the forested hilltops of Phulchowki, Jamachowk and Shivapuri, and the open scrubby bush areas of Nagarkot , Suryavinyak and Chandragiri.

There are about 20 Kathmandu Valley species on the endangered or vulnerable list. Outside the valley in the areas of the National Parks scattered throughout the country, the butterflies too are in profusion, and in undisturbed areas away from settlements are the ideal places to sit and watch.

Flora
Records from 2006 show that Nepal has 6,391 flowering plant species representing 1,590 genera and 231 families whereas in 1997, they recorded 4,259 species representing 1,447 genera and 194 families. Nepal’s share of flowering plant species is 2.76% of the global total compared to earlier records of 2.36%. Nepal’s share of pteriodophytes is 5.15% compared to earlier records of 4.45%.

There are 2,532 species of vascular plants represented by 1,034 genera and 199 families in the protected sites. Some 130 endemic species are found in the protected sites. 
For ecology and vegetation purposes Nepal could be divided into four floristic regions i.e. (a) western (b) north-western (c) central, and (d) eastern, and bio-climatically these are broken down into twenty regions from humid tropical climate to the arid, alpine regions. But for the purpose of identifying Nepal’s flora for the special interest tourist, the following shows the zones from the point of view of altitude i.e. Tropical zone (below 1,000 m), Sub-tropical Zone (1,000 to 2,100 m), Temperate Zone (2,100 to 3,100 m), Sub-alpine Zone (3,100 to 4,100 m), the Alpine Zone (4,100 to 4,500 m), and the Alpine Steppe region. 
There are 399 endemic flowering plants in Nepal of which about 63% are from the High Mountains, 38% from the Mid Hills, and only 5% from the Tarai and Siwaliks. Similarly, the central region contains 66% of the total endemic species followed by western (32%) and eastern regions (29%).

Fossils
To the geological world, Shaligram is one of the coiled chambered fossil shells of the extinct Cepalopod Mollusks that came into existence as part of the initial emergence of the Himalayan heights from the depths of the Tethys-sea millions of years ago. The Nepali, however, sees the Shaligram from a religious aspect because of its embodiment of Vishnu, one of the major manifestations in the Hindu Trinity. Puranas like Scanda, Padam and Baraha written around 2000 years ago, give an exhaustive account of Shaligram, which are divided into a wide variety of color, shape and size. They can be found in the north of the Nilgiri range right up to Damodar Kunda, and also in the waters of the Kaligandaki river right up to Tribeni in Dolalghat. However, the most popular belt is on the banks of the Kaligandaki river at Jomsom where pilgrims who pass through on their way to Muktinath search for a wide variety of Shaligrams. 

Medicinal Plants
Medicinal plants, Ayurveda and the Himalayas are intertwined in a very special manner and Nepal, with a large section lying in the Himalayan region, has special significance. Medicinal plants are used in traditional rural remedies, Ayurvedic medicines, Homoeopathic medicines, and many of them find a place in allopathic medicine as well. 

There are thousands of species easily available and most of them are only available in the Himalayan Zone. The demand for these herbs is high and they can be cultivated on a large scale, but care must be taken to preserve these species of medicinal plants.
 
Some of the important and well-known medicinal plants are: Alpine & sub-alpine medicinal plants: Aconitum Spp., Picrorrhiza scrophularaeflora, Swertia multicaulis, Rheum emodi, Nardostachys jatamansi, Ephedra gerardiana, Cordyceps sinensis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea. 
Tropical and sub-tropical medicinal plants: Terminalias, Cassia fistula, Cassia catechu, Aegles marmelos, Rauwolfia serpentina, Phyllanthus emblica, Ricinus recemosus, Acorus clams, Acacia concinnity, Butte monster. 
Temperate zone medicinal plants: Valeriana wallichii, Berberis, Datura, Solanum, Rubia, Zanthoxylum armatum, Gaultheria fragrautissima, Dioscorea deltoidea, Curulligo orchoidies. 
Some of the regions where medicinal plants are abundantly found are: the Tarai region of Nawalparasi, Chitwan, Bardia, Dhanusha, Mid-hilly Region of Makhwanpur, Syanja, Kaski, Lamgjung, Dolakha, Parvat, Ilam, Ramechhap, Nuwakot, and the Himalayan region of Dolpa, Mugu, Humla, Jumla, Manang, Mustang and Solukhumbu. 

Orchids
In ancient Rome, Theophrastus, a student of Plato, was intrigued by the sight of a plant with a pair of roots. Orchis was the name he gave them, the Greek word for testicles. Worldwide, there are some 500 to 600 genera and some 20,000 to 35,000 names, the largest of all plant families, and out of this, Nepal has 57 genera (27 Terrestrials and 30 Epiphytic) with a few Lithophytes. Spread over a large area in different ecological zones, from the foothills of the Himalayas to the plains in the Tarai, orchids are quite widespread in Nepal giving nature lovers and horticultural experts a treat. 

Some beautiful terrestrial orchids that flower during July-August have a stem with only two leaves and purple flowers while another orchid from the same genera in west Nepal blooms orange-green flowers during February-March. 

Greenish fragrant orchid flowers bloom in March-April around the Godavari area and in Shivapuri and Kakani, orchids with white or pale yellow flowers are seen. During September-October, Sundarijal comes alive with green orchids streaked with purple, and on the way to Daman, pale mauve orchids line the banks of the road in November. All of the areas mentioned above are accessible in a couple of hours or less from Kathmandu. Further away in Dhankuta and Hetauda, there are bright yellow orchid flowers while in Khandbari, purple-brown orchids with pale borders are found. 

Nepal is endowed with an incredible variety of orchids scattered across the country. Dedrobium is the largest species, followed by Habenaria and Bulbophyllum. Anthogonium, Hemipilia and Lusia are some of the other varieties amongst the nearly two dozen single species families. 


Rhododendron
During spring, between March and May, the hills burst into brightly colored flowers.  These Rhododendron flowers can be seen in all the hilly regions of Nepal above 1,200m.  More specifically, the middle mountains vertical belt between 2000 and 4000m serves as the 'wild' preserve of the Rhododendron, or Gurans as it is known in Nepali. 

There are four major areas that are specified for Rhododendron treks – 
1.    Milke Danda-Jaljale Himal, a transverse mountain range which separates the two river systems of the Tamur and the Arun 
2.    Upper Tamur River Valley 
3.    Makalu Barun National Park 
4.    The Langtang Valley inside Langtang National Park 

Nepal has 30 indigenous species of Rhododendron, and one which is endemic to Nepal and not found elsewhere, is R. lowndesit. It has lemon or creamy yellow flowers, which are short, well-shaped and are solitary or in pairs on the stem. It grows in the drier areas of western Nepal near Muktinath and Phoksundo. 


A Rhododendron Trek to the Upper Tamur River begins with a flight to Bhadrapur followed by a drive to Ilam, which is a well-known tea growing region of Nepal. Trekkers can make an interesting side trip to a tea plantation and observe the fascinating process of manufacturing tea. The trek starts on the south-west side of the Kanchenjunga area and the upper valleys of the Tamur River system. Trekkers enjoy grand views of forests resplendent in rhododendron bloom which the region is famous for.
 
And closer to Kathmandu, Dhunche at 2000 metres is a 5 to 6 hours drive away. Treks to the upper areas of the Langtang Valley begin here. This region boasts of nine species of rhododendron. 

LANGUAGES


Nepali is the official language of Nepal, with over 93 other languages and dialects spoken as mother-tongues in different parts of the country. Nepali is of the Indo-Aryan family of languages brought from central Asia by the Aryans. The original Old Indo-Aryan language gave rise to Sanskrit from which Nepali derives. Nepali uses the Devanagri script (the script of the city of the gods, sometimes known as Nagari) which derived from the Brahmi script of ancient India. 

Most ethnic groups have their own languages and some like the Rais have many dialects spoken in the various regions where they live. Newars, Rais, Limbus, Lepchas all have their own script which are still in use. One of the most well-known script is the Ranjana Lipi used by the Newar people. They have used various other scripts over the centuries. In the tarai regions, various languages like Maithili, Hindi and others are spoken. Most people can speak Nepali, which is the lingua franca of Nepal.

English is widely spoken in the cities and with more and more schools teaching in the English medium, a large population of the younger generation can speak English.  Both English and Nepali are used for official purposes. 

Foreign students can study Nepali (spoken and Devanagari script), Newari, Sanskrit and Tibetan languages at the Bishwa Bhasha Campus (at Bhrikutimandap) of Tribhuvan University in Kathmandu. They may pursue BA and MA studies in the Nepali language at the Department of Nepali Studies, Tribhuvan University in Kirtipur. 

CUSTOMS


The amazing diversity that is seen in the Nepali society also means there is much diversity in the customs and beliefs of each different ethnic group. The major division is along religious lines where the two major players are Hinduism and Buddhism. Then there are Jains, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs and ethnic groups that follow their own unique religious beliefs and customs. Even among the Hindus and Buddhists there are groups like the Newars who besides following religious customs, have unique rituals such as the Bel Biwa where a young girl is symbolically married to a Bel fruit. Newars are divided into two religious groups: Hindus and Buddhists. 

Among all the customs and rituals, the rules of marriage are particularly interesting. In traditional families, marriages are arranged by consenting parents after the boy or girl comes of age. Child marriage and polygamy still exist in Nepal although abolished by law. Each ethnic group has a different set of rituals for the wedding ceremony while many in general follow the Hindu customs. For many it is customary to elope before being officially accepted by the parents and among some it is even normal to wait for the girl to get pregnant before the official ceremony. Nepali customs are as diverse as the people themselves.

The marriageable age has been legally set at 18 for women and 21 for men, but such laws are not strictly adhered to. Even today, most marriages are arranged by parents, but love marriages are becoming common especially among the educated people.   In the villages, child marriages are still practiced and in Kathmandu especially among the Newar community, two siblings getting married off simultaneously is also common. Weddings are elaborate often lasting days. Ceremonies include bringing the bride to the groom’s house in a procession accompanied by music played by a brass band. Originally, the band consisted of an ensemble playing ‘Panche Baja’ comprised of Nepali folk instruments. But more and more Nepalis are opting for the brass band which is deafeningly loud. 

The pasni (rice-feeding) ceremony is one of the important occasions for a child. In the presence of family and priest, the seven month-old child is dressed in finery and fed rice presented on a coin by all members of the family. He is shown several objects on a tray: a heap of earth, paddy (unhusked rice), bricks, toys, rings, a pen and ink-pot, and a book. It is said his parents can tell the child s future profession from the object he first picks up.  

ETHNIC MOSIAC


Brahmans
Brahmans belong to the priestly caste. There are two different categories of Brahmans viz. 'Kumai Brahmans' and 'Purbiya Brahmans'.  The 'Kumai Brahmans' are said to have come from the mountainous regions of Kumaon in northern India, west of Nepal. They are mainly confined to western and central Nepal and the capital city of Kathmandu. The 'Purbiya' Brahmans derive from the eastern part of Nepal and are found scattered across the country with a greater concentration in the eastern part of Nepal and Kathmandu. 

Chhetris and Thakuris
Chhetris and Thakuris are traditionally rulers, leaders and warriors. The Brahmans are their teachers and family priests. They are orthodox Hindus. Chhetris and Thakuris are among the most influential and well-to-do social classes. They are mostly in government service, in the army and police force. Some of them have remained farmers and are relatively poor.

Tamangs 
The Tamangs live mainly in the high hills in the east, west, north and south of Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal. The Tamangs are divided into several exogamous clans and are Buddhists. There are several gompas or gumbas (Buddhist temples) in most Tamang settlements. All their festivals and ceremonies are performed in accordance to Buddhism. Many of them are engaged in thangka painting.




      
Gurungs 
In the middle hills and valleys along the southern slopes of the Annapurna Himalaya in mid-western Nepal, the Gurungs live together with other ethnic groups like Magars, Brahmans and Chhetris. These sturdy, hardworking people are Mongoloid in features. They are spread out over a large territory from Gorkha in the east through Lamjung, Manang and Kaski to Syangja district. They also have a tradition of 'Rodi', a club for boys and girls of similar age group where they sing and dance to their traditional music. 
      
Magars 
The Magars are similar to Gurungs in physical features but enjoy a separate identity. Along with the Gurung, the Magars for centuries have served in the British and Indian Gurkha/Gorkha regiments and in the Nepal Army. The Magars celebrate the festival dedicated to the goddess Kali in great pomp (a Hindu festival). Mainly in Gorkha, they sacrifice plenty of goats during the occasion. Magar villages are known for their traditional round and oval houses. 

Newars 
The natives of Kathmandu valley, the Newars, are mainly traders and farmers. With a purpose to trade, they are scattered across the country; with greater concentration in the Kathmandu Valley, Banepa, Dhulikhel, Bhojpur, Bandipur and Tansen. Despite their small population, their contribution to the history, art, architecture and business activities of Nepal is outstanding. 
Newars speak their own language, 'Newari' better known as Nepal Bhasa which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of languages. There are both Buddhist and Hindu Newars. Like elsewhere in the country, religious syncretism is blended into the culture and tradition. They celebrate numerous feasts and festivals throughout the year. Most of the spectacular festivals of the valley like the chariot processions are Newari traditions. The traditional art and architecture of Nepal is dominated by that of the Newari community as they are known for their skilled craftsmen who took their craft as far as the Mongol court in China.
      
 Rais and Limbus 
The Rais and Limbus jointly known as Kirants are said to have ruled the Katmandu valley from around 7th century BC to the time they were defeated around 300 AD. After their fall they moved to the area now known as Patan and later to the east of Nepal occupying the Arun valley up to the Sikkim border. They have strong Mongoloid features and speak a Tibeto-Burman language. Today the Rais are found mostly in the hilly regions of eastern Nepal mainly around Dhankuta, Terhathum, Bhojpur and Arun and Dudh Koshi valleys. The Limbus are spread out in the extreme east of Nepal, mainly in and around Taplejung, Khotang and the Arun Valley. The Rais are neither Hindu nor Buddhist but worship their own deities and ancestors. They are divided into many sub-groups each of which speaks a different dialect. The Limbus follow a mixture of Shaivism and Animism. Among the Rais and Limbus marriages are monogamous. Many have served in the Gurkha regiments of the Indian and British armies.

Sherpas 
 The most famous among the Himalayan people are the Sherpas because of their natural mountain climbing skills which has made them an indispensable part of mountain expeditions as leaders, guides and porters. As an individual or in groups, they have set records of many 'firsts' in the mountaineering world. They live in the high Himalayan region of eastern Nepal, in the vicinity of Mt. Everest, along the Arun Valley, the Dudh Koshi River and its tributary areas. Sherpas are strongly Buddhists and observe a number of festivals during the year including Lhosar which is their New Year and also the most important of festivals. In the higher regions like Thyangboche, Chiwang and Thame, they celebrate an interesting festival called Mani Rimdu which has become a major tourist attraction. With strong Mongoloid features, they are said to have originally come from Tibet and resemble them in their traditional costumes and religious beliefs. The sherpas have adapted to the high altitude where they live. 
     
Tharus 
 The Tharus are the indigenous ethnic group of the Tarai with a concentrated population in the middle and west of Nepal. Most of the Tharus have Mongoloid but dark features which distinguishes them from the other Mongoloid people. They are aboriginal Tarai settlers and are said to be partially immune to malaria. The Tharus have their indigenous dialect, known as 'Naja'. But they speak a mixture of local dialects, such as Prakriti, Bhojpuri, Mughali, Nepali, Urdu and Maithili. They live in long houses accommodating large extended families. They are divided into three major groups: the Desaura, Dangaura and Rana Tharu. The Tharus believe in animism but celebrate some Hindu festivals as well. Each village has its own local gods and goddesses protecting the people. Some Tharus are believed to have immigrated from Rajasthan while others claim they originated in Dang. During festivals Tharus dress up in spectacular costumes and large silver ornaments.
 
Thakali 
 'Thakalis' are believed to have originated from Thak Khola, the valley of the Kali Gandaki river in western Nepal. They are famous for their neatly tended kitchens and are mostly engaged in running hotels, inns, and restaurants. They are encountered mainly in the Around Annapurana Trek, one of the most popular trekking routes in Nepal. The religion of the Thakali is a mixture of Buddhism, shamanism, Bonpo and Hinduism. Lha Feva is the most significant festival for the Thakalis. Although they have Mongoloid features they are quite distinct from the other ethnic groups. They once played an important part in the salt trade with Tibet.

Manangé  or Manangba
Manangé people resemble Tibetans but are believed to be originally of the Gurung ethnic group and most use the surname Gurung. They live in the lower hills and valleys of Manang in the upper reaches of the Marsyangdi River towards the north in central Nepal. The Manang district encloses three distinct areas of Neshyang, Nar and Gyasumdo; all of them culturally interrelated. Skilled traders, they have been travelling in south-east and far-east Asia for centuries dealing in jewelry, herbs and whatever fetches a good price. Later they switched to importing clothes and electronic goods from Hong Kong and Bangkok. They are strongly Buddhist and celebrate Lhosar as their New Year. They also celebrate interesting events like the Archery Festival known as ‘Metha’ which lasts for weeks involving competition between various villages around Manang and the horse racing festival known as ‘Yartung’ which is also celebrated in Mustang. 

Dolpa People 
The Dolpa or Dolpo settlements are concentrated in the remote and fascinating region which is confined by the Dhaulagiri massif in the south and east; the Sisne and Kanjiroba in the west and Tibet on the north. They generally settle at altitudes of 3,660 m to 4,000 m. They are probably the highest settlements in the world. The people of Dolpo have mongoloid features and bear a close resemblance to Tibetans. They share the same religion, Buddhism and also speak Tibetan. Their homeland is famous for the pristine turquoise lakes and beautiful landscape. They trade with Tibet and transport their barter goods on yak caravans often travelling for extended periods. Their lifestyle was portrayed in the film “Caravan”.     

Chepang and Kusundas 
These backward ethnic communities belong to a well-defined traditional area in the south of Dhading, the west of Makawanpur and east of Chitwan along the steeper slopes of the Mahabharat range of middle Nepal. Although nomadic people, a few of these tribal people have started deriving subsistence from agriculture otherwise they are hunter gatherers. They have the ability to survive by hunting and searching for roots to eat. Though, they are economically backward, they have a rich and unique cultural tradition. In recent time there has been an attempt to get them to settle down in one place.

Raute
One of the vanishing tribes of Nepal, the population of Rautes is down to 658. This nomadic tribe lives in the mid-western part of Nepal. They are known for making wooden bowls which they barter with other goods especially foodstuff like grains. They also use the wooden bowls to keep grain and maize. They make temporary residences near the forest where they search for food. They are hunter gatherers who hunt monkeys most of the time.